Hinduism (Sanskrit: हिन्दू धर्म, Hindū Dharma, also known as सनातन धर्म, Sanātana Dharma) is a set of religious traditions that originated mainly in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism encompasses many religious beliefs, practices, and denominations. Hindus believe in a supreme cosmic spirit called Brahman, who is worshipped in many forms, represented by individual deities such as Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti.
Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world, with approximately 1 billion adherents (2005 figure), of whom approximately 890 million live in India.[1] Other countries with large Hindu populations include Nepal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Fiji, Guyana, and Indonesia.[2] Fifteen million Hindus live in Bangladesh, 2 million in Pakistan, 1 million in the United Arab Emirates, [3] and 1.4 million in the United States[8]
Hinduism is considered to be the oldest living religion in the world. [4][5] [6] Unlike many other religions, Hinduism has no single founder,[7][8] and there is no clerical hierarchy of the type found in some religions, for example the Roman Catholic Church. Hinduism looks to a large number of religious texts developed over many centuries that contain spiritual insights and provide practical guidance for religious life. Among such texts, the ancient Vedas are usually considered the most authoritative. Other scriptures include the eighteen Puranas, and the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita, which is contained within the Mahabharata, is a widely studied teaching that is said to contain, in distilled form, the highest truths of the Vedas.[9]
Contents
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* 1 Etymology
* 2 Core concepts
o 2.1 The Vedas and Later Scriptures
o 2.2 The Goal of Life (jīvan-lakshya)
o 2.3 Multiple Ways to Reach the Goal (yogas)
+ 2.3.1 Bhakti Yoga
+ 2.3.2 Karma Yoga
+ 2.3.3 Raja Yoga
+ 2.3.4 Jnana Yoga
o 2.4 Karma & Reincarnation
o 2.5 Faith
o 2.6 Conversion
o 2.7 Concept of God
+ 2.7.1 God: Both Principle and Person
# 2.7.1.1 Deities
# 2.7.1.2 Avatāras (incarnations of God)
+ 2.7.2 Heaven and Hell
o 2.8 Practices
+ 2.8.1 Pūjā (worship)
# 2.8.1.1 Worship of God through Images
+ 2.8.2 The Guru-Disciple Tradition
+ 2.8.3 Mantra
+ 2.8.4 Pilgrimage
+ 2.8.5 The four pursuits of life
* 3 Denominations
* 4 History
o 4.1 Origins
o 4.2 Vedic religion
* 5 Society
o 5.1 Temples
o 5.2 Current geographic distribution
o 5.3 Ashramas (stages of life)
o 5.4 Varnas & the Caste System
o 5.5 Ahimsa, vegetarianism, and the cow
* 6 Schools of Hindu Philosophy
* 7 Themes and symbols
o 7.1 Tilaka
o 7.2 Vibhuti
o 7.3 Symbolism
* 8 Classification of Scriptures
o 8.1 Shruti
o 8.2 Smriti
o 8.3 Bhagavad Gita
o 8.4 Notes
o 8.5 References
o 8.6 See also
+ 8.6.1 Hinduism
+ 8.6.2 Related systems and religions
o 8.7 External links
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Etymology
The term Hindu is derived from Sindhu (Sanskrit:सिन्धु, the ancient name of the Indus River), located in what is now Pakistan.[10] The Persians, using a slightly different pronunciation of the word "Sindhu," refered to the people who lived near or on the other side of the Sindhu River as "Hindus," and their religion became known as "Hinduism." Prior to that time, Hindus had called their religion Sanātana Dharma (the eternal religion), Vaidika Dharma (the religion of the Vedas), Ārya dharma (the noble religion), or mānava dharma (the religion of mankind). Eventually the word "Hindu" came into common use among Hindus themselves,[11] and was borrowed by the Ancient Greeks as Indikos ("Indian"), into Latin as Indianus.[12] and into Sanskrit, as hindu (हिन्दु), appearing in some early medieval texts.[13]
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Core concepts
The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the ancient Vedic tradition (Vaidika paramparā). Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism all share some common philosophical and spiritual traits with Hinduism, as all these religions originated in India, and they all focus on self-improvement for the ultimate purpose of attaining personal spiritual experience.
Themes common to the value system of Hinduism are the beliefs in Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations), Samsāra ("rebirth"), Karma ("right action"), and Moksha ("salvation") for every soul.
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The Vedas and Later Scriptures
Whereas most major religions of the world base their beliefs on certain books which adherents believe are the words of God or other supernatural beings, Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times." [14] The earliest records of these laws are called the Vedas. Hindus do not claim that God or any person created the Vedas; the Vedas are said to be without beginning and without end. "Just as the law of gravitation existed before its discovery and would exist if all humanity forgot it, so is it with the laws that govern the spiritual world." [15] The ancient sages who first discovered the spiritual knowledge known as the Vedas are called rishis. [16] The Vedas are believed to have been transmitted orally, in verse form, for many years [17] before being committed to writing. The earliest hymns (mantras) of the Vedas are those of the Rig Veda, dating back to at least 1000 BC.[18] Over many centuries, the teachings of the Vedas were expanded upon by other sages, and other scriptures were written. Some of the most prominent of these scriptures are the Bhagavad Gita, the Brahma Sutras, and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
In contrast to the Biblical canon in mainstream Christianity, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed; Hindus believe that since the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they may continue to be expressed in new ways in the future. A sage today can realize the same truths that the ancient rishis realized. New scriptures may continue to be written to express the truths of the Vedas in ways that will be accessible to the people of different times and places. For this reason, Hindus may venerate the words of a modern saint--Sri Ramakrishna, Sai Baba, or Sri Ramana Maharshi, for example--as much as those of the ancient rishis. Of course, there is a special veneration for ancient scriptures since they have been validated by many sages and thinkers over the course of many years.
Hindus may even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since Hinduism teaches that the one divinity can reveal itself in innumerable ways. A much-quoted pada (verse) from the Rigveda that emphasises the diversity of paths to the one goal is:
ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti
Truth is one, the wise call it by many names
—Rig Veda 1.164.46c
Thus, Hinduism accepts a large number of scriptures, and remains open to any new revelations that may come in the future. Because the same eternal spiritual truths can be viewed from innumerable perspectives, there is relatively little theological quarrel among Hindu denominations.
Hindus do not concern themselves much about whether the stories found in the scriptures are accurate from a historical perspective; they are more concerned with the spiritual lessons found in the scriptures. Hindus readily admit that their scriptures contain a mix of historical fact, myth, and spiritual truths; their main concern is the deeper spiritual meaning of the various stories and teachings. Hinduism exegesis often leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones.
Hindu sages (rishis)--in contrast with Judeo-Christian and Muslim prophets--do not focus on predicting the future or warning of the judgement of God; they are more concerned with two things: (1) teaching mystical truths, and (2) providing guidance regarding how one can become morally, spiritually, and physically pure.
See also Classification of Scriptures, below
The Naradiyamahapuranam describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu the Maintainer with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag. The great sage Narada and Brahma the Creator are also pictured.
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The Naradiyamahapuranam describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu the Maintainer with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag. The great sage Narada and Brahma the Creator are also pictured.
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The Goal of Life (jīvan-lakshya)
The goal of life is stated variously as the realization of one's union with God, attainment of the vision of God, attainment of perfect love of God, realization of the unity of all existence, perfect unselfishness, liberation from ignorance, attainment of perfect mental peace, or detachment from worldly desires. The goal is to have the direct experience of divinity, regardless of precisely how one may choose to define it. The experience of divinity is the only thing that can give one true peace and happiness, and salvation from suffering and ignorance. According to Hindu thought, one does not necessarily have to wait until death to attain salvation; it is possible to achieve it in this very life. One who attains salvation while living is called a jīvan-mukta.[19]
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Multiple Ways to Reach the Goal (yogas)
In whatever way a Hindu might define the goal of life--and multiple definitions are allowed--there are several methods (yogas) that have been developed over the centuries for people of different tastes and temperaments. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life include:
1. Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion),
2. Karma Yoga (the path of right action),
3. Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) and
4. Jñāna Yoga (the path of rational inquiry).[20]
Bhakti yoga is prescribed for people of emotional temperaments. Karma yoga is prescribed for people who like to always be engaged in action. Raja yoga is recommended for meditative people. And Jnana yoga is meant for the rational person. It is typical for Hindus to combine two or more of these paths into their spiritual life to create a path that suits their personal temperaments.[21].
A few schools hold only one or two of these paths leads to salvation. For example, some followers of the Dvaita school hold that Bhakti ("devotion") is the only path. A large number of Hindus, however, believe that although one particular path may be best for them, another path may be better for another person, and any path--if followed sincerely--can lead to God.
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Bhakti Yoga
The bhakti school emphasizes cultivation of love and devotion for God as being the path to salvation. Followers of bhakti ("bhaktas") typically worship God as a divine incarnation, such as Rama or Krishna, or as some other aspect of the personal God. Bhakti tends to attract those who are emotional by nature. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds through the chanting of God's name (japa), prayer, the singing of hymns (bhajan), and by treating all living creatures with compassion (dayā). Whereas the followers of the jnana yoga seek the realization that "My inner soul is none other than God," followers of bhakti yoga "wish to taste sugar, not to become sugar."[22] Therefore, bhaktas seek to enjoy communion with God, but do not seek to merge their consciousness with God completely as the followers of jnana yoga do.
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Karma Yoga
The followers of karma yoga seek to achieve mental equilibrium and perfect unselfishness by performing their duties in the world in a dedicated but mentally detached manner. According to Hinduism, work, which is inevitable, has one great disadvantage. Any work done with attachment to its fruits generates a kind of psychological bondage, or anxiety, in the mind of the worker.[23] Therefore, followers of karma yoga emphasize the following injunction in the Bhagavad Gita:
Do your duty, always; but without attachment. That is how a man reaches the ultimate truth; by working without anxiety about results.[24]
Many followers of karma yoga try to attain mental detachment from the results of their work by mentally offering the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with bhakti yoga. However, it is also possible for even an athiest to follow karma yoga by simply remaining mentally detached from the results of his or her work by means of willpower.
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Raja Yoga
The followers of Raja yoga seek to attain realization of spiritual truths through meditation. Raja yoga is also known simply as yoga and is based on the Yoga Sutras (aphorisms on yoga) of the sage Patanjali. Through the practice of meditation, followers of this path seek to gradually gain control over their own thoughts and actions, rather than being controlled by their impulses as most people are. They seek to attain one-pointed concentration and perfect equanimity of mind. Ultimately, through meditation, the followers of raja yoga seek knowledge: by concentrating all the energies of the mind inward, they seek to perceive whether they have souls, "whether life is of five minutes or of eternity, and whether there is a God."[25] Thus, the highest goal of raja yoga is God-realization, or experiencing the Ultimate Truth.[26]
The actual act of sitting down for meditation, however, is only the tip of the iceberg in Raja yoga. The disciplines of raja yoga actually consist of eight steps, of which dhyāna (meditation) is only one.[27] The following are the eight practices of Raja yoga:
1. Yama: Restraining harmful thoughts and impulses.
2. Niyama: Cultivating good habits.
3. Āsana: Learning sitting postures suitable for prolonged contemplation.
4. Prānāyama: Learning the technique of rhythmic breathing.
5. Pratyāhāra: Withdrawing the senses from their objects of enjoyment.
6. Dhāranā: Fixing the mind on the object of contemplation.
7. Dhyāna: Uninterrupted contemplation (meditation).
8. Samādhi: Total absorption of the mind in the object of contemplation.[28]
As with the other yogas, Raja yoga may be combined with bhakti yoga, karma yoga, or jnana yoga to create a customized path suitable for an individual aspirant.
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Jnana Yoga
The followers of jnana yoga emphasize a two-step process to help one attain salvation:
(1) viveka, the practice of discriminating between things that are impermanent (i.e., worldly pleasures) and those that are permanent (i.e. God and the soul), and
(2) vairagya, renunciation of unhealthy attachment to things that are impermanent.
For monks (called sanyāsīs or sādhus ) and nuns (sanyāsinīs), renunciation may mean actual physical departure from worldly activities such as marriage and earning money. For the vast majority of people, however, renunciation means mental detachment from selfish desires while continuing to fulfill family and community obligations. By focusing the mind on Divinity instead of the desire for selfish gain, one can maintain a healthy mental equilibrium in the face of the inevitable highs and lows of life.
It is on account of ignorance (or māyā) that humans identify themselves with their physical bodies and their egos (the sense of "I" and "mine"). These are impermanent, and thus ultimately unreal. The true "self" of every person--the only part of a person that is permanent--is the inner soul, called the atman. Further, the atman of each person is eternally connected to the atman of every other person, and, for that matter, with all other existence.
To take an analogy, each individual soul is like a wave on the ocean. The "ocean"--which is not really different from the waves--is like Brahman, the one Divine, constant reality that unites all the changes and multiplicity in the world. When seen through the filter of ignorance, each wave seems to have a separate identity of its own, and when a wave subsides, it seems to have ceased to exist. However, when a person sees rightly, he comes to understand that each wave is none other than the one permanent ocean. Similarly, the highest realization that the followers of jnana yoga strive to attain is that all living beings are essentially none other than the infinite, permanent Brahman, and thus can never die. Having this realization makes one naturally treat all people with love and compassion, since one understands that by doing good to others, one actually does good to oneself. It also removes all fear of death. Thus, the followers of jnana yoga seek to realize the highest truths by distinguishing between the real and the unreal, and by then rejecting the unreal.
Jnana yoga is often associated with the Vedanta school of philosophy, although Hindus of the Vedanta school may incorporate elements of bhakti yoga and the other yogas into their spiritual practices as well.
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Karma & Reincarnation
The philosophy of Karma is basically the law of cause and effect. It states that everything we do leaves an impression in our mind, which determines what kind of people we will become in the future. If we regularly perform good actions, we will develop good tendencies. If we do bad things, we will develop bad tendencies, which naturally can cause bad things to happen in our lives. Since Hinduism believes in reincarnation, it follows that our actions in this life can determine what kind of tendencies we will be born with in subsequent lives. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. Therefore, Hinduism teaches, we should try to behave in a virtuous manner as much as possible, so that we will develop good habits and tendencies both in this and the next life. Over the course of time, if one can sufficiently purify his or her mind, one can attain the goal of life: experience of the highest truth, which is God.[29]
The cycle of birth and death is called samsāra. According to the doctrine of reincarnation, the soul (atman) is immortal, while the body is subject to birth and death. The Bhagavad Gita states that
Worn-out garments are shed by the body; Worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller within the body. New bodies are donned by the dweller, like garments.[30]
Hinduism teaches that the soul goes on repeatedly being born and dying. One is reborn on account of desire: a person desires to be born because he or she wants to enjoy worldly pleasures, which can be enjoyed only through a body. Hinduism does not teach that all worldly pleasures are sinful, but it teaches that they can never bring deep, lasting happiness or peace (ānanda). So long as the soul mistakenly identifies itself with the ego (the sense of "I" and "mine", called ahamkāra in Sanskrit), it will have worldly desires, which will cause it to be reborn again and again.
After many births, every person eventually becomes dissatisfied with the limited happiness that worldly pleasures can bring. At this point, a person begins to seek higher forms of happiness, which can be attained only through spiritual experience. When, after much spiritual practice (sādhanā), a person finally realizes his or her own divine nature--ie., realizes that the true "self" is the immortal soul rather than the body or the ego--all desires for the pleasures of the world will vanish, since they will seem insipid compared to spiritual ānanda. When all desire has vanished, the person will not be reborn anymore.
When the cycle of rebirth thus comes to an end, a person is said to have attained moksha, or salvation. While all schools of thought agree that moksha implies the cessation of worldly desires and freedom from the cycle of birth and death, the exact definition of salvation depends on individual beliefs. For example, followers of the Advaita Vedanta school (e.g. jnana yoga) believe that they will spend eternity absorbed in the perfect peace and happiness that comes with the realization that all existence is One (Brahman), and that the immortal soul is part of that existence. Thus they will no longer identify themselves as individual persons, but will see the "self" as a part of the infinite ocean of divinity, described as sat-chit-ananda (existence-knowledge-bliss). The followers of Dvaita schools (e.g., bhakti yoga), on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a loka, or heaven, where they will have the blessed company of their chosen form of God (some form of Ishvara) throughout eternity. The two schools are not necessarily contradictory, however. A follower of one school may believe that both types of salvation are possible, but will simply have a personal preference to experience one or the other. Thus, it is said, the followers of Dvaita wish to "taste sugar," while the follers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."[31]
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Faith
Hinduism values faith, but it does not require blind faith. According to the teacher Swami Vivekananda, true religion can never be "mere intellectual assent" or "mere talk. " [32]
"It is not what you read or what dogmas you believe that is of importance, but what you realize. The end of all religions is the realization of God in the soul."[33]
There is said to be no concept of blasphemy in Hinduism. Any question is allowed--and even encouraged--so long as it is sincere. [34] Therefore, there is no excommunication for a Hindu who comes to doubt an aspect of the faith, or even for a person who doubts the existence of God. Hinduism believes that so long as a person is sincerely searching for the truth, he or she will find it sooner or later. Thus, in the Bhagavad Gita, God (in the form of Krishna) says
Whatever path men travel is my path: No matter where they walk it leads to me.[35]
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Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the issue of whether Hindus evangelize is open to interpretations. [36] For the most part, though, Hindus do not evangelize. [37] Regarding conversion, those who view Hinduism as being an ethnicity more than a religion (as some secular Jews view Judaism) tend not to believe that one can convert to Hinduism. However, those who see Hinduism primarily as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and by considering oneself a Hindu.[36] There is no formal conversion process, although in many denominations the ritual called "dikshaa" or "initiation" is seen as being the beginning of spiritual life, much like baptism in Christianity. In any case, most Hindu denominations do not actively seek to recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, so long as the religion is practiced sincerely.[38] There are a number of Hindu "missionary" groups that operate missions in non-Hindu countries for purposes of providing guidance to the public that can be applied to spiritual life within any religion, whether or not one converts to Hinduism. Examples are the Vedanta Society (also known as the Ramakrishna Mission) and the Self-Realization Fellowship.
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Concept of God
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God: Both Principle and Person
Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but strictly speaking, this is not entirely accurate. Some commentators have called Hinduism henotheistic. Hinduism believes in one God, but recognizes that the one God can appear to humans in multiple names and forms.[39]
God is, in the highest sense, One: formless, infinite, and eternal. God is changeless and is the very source of consciousness. God is beyond time, space, and causation and yet permeates everything and every being. Being formless, God is beyond gender--neither male nor female.[40] When God is thought of as this infinite principle, God is called Brahman. Brahman is the Absolute reality: it is pure existence and knowledge. Brahman does not exist; it is existence itself. It is not all-knowing; it is knowledge itself.
However, when human beings try to think of the infinite God, they project the limitations of their finite minds on God. The human mind cannot think other than in human terms. Therefore, it projects human limitations, such as personality, motherhood, fatherhood, etc. on God. In reality, God does not have any such attributes.[41] It is not considered harmful to project such attributes on God; on the contrary, it is considered helpful because the myriad names and forms of God one finds in Hinduism are all ways for humans to approach the divine. Therefore, the Hindu scriptures depict God not only as an abstract principle or concept, but also as a personal being, much like the God in the Judeo-Christian religions.
Despite Hinduism's belief in the abstract principle of the infinite Brahman, most Hindus worship God on a day-to-day basis in one of God's less abstract personal forms, such as Vishnu, Shiva, or Shakti (or as one of the particular forms of one of these deities--e.g. Rama, who is a form of Vishnu). Hindus worship these personal forms of God for a practical reason: it is easier to cultivate devotion to a personal being than to an abstract principle.
The Hindu scriptures declare that Brahman (the impersonal God) cannot be described in words, but can be understood only through direct spiritual experience. Nevertheless, the ancient Hindu sages who experienced Brahman were able to communicate only with human language. These sages thus endeavoured to describe the nature of Brahman as well as they could. The attempts of the sages make up a large portion of the Hindu scriptures, particularly in the ancient Vedic texts known as the Upanishads.[42]
Several "mahā-vākyas," or great sayings, indicate what the principle of Brahman is:
"Brahman is knowledge" (prajnānam brahma),
"Brahman is the Self (or the Soul)" (ayam ātmā brahma),
"I am Brahman" (aham brahmāsmi),
"You are Brahman" (tat tvam asi),
"All this [that we see in the world] is Brahman" (sarvam khalv idam brahma), and
"Brahman is existence, consciousness, and happiness" (sachchidānanda brahma).[43]
Thus, Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is conceived of as the very essence of existence and knowledge, which pervades the entire universe, including every living being. The goal of Hinduism is to somehow "wake up," and realize our own connection to the divine reality that may be called Brahman or God.[44] Because God is everywhere, he (or she, or it) is also present within us. The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita (15.15 and 18.61), which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.
When God is thought of as the supreme all-powerful person (rather than as the infinite principle called Brahman), God is called Īśvara or Bhagavān. Īśvara is a word used to refer to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. Most Hindus, in their daily devotional practices, worship some form of this personal aspect of God, although they believe in the more abstract concept of Brahman as well. Sometimes this means worshiping God through an image or a picture. Sometimes it just means thinking of God as a personal being.
Depending on which aspect of Īśvara one is talking about, a different name will be used--and frequently a different image or picture. For instance, when God is talked about in his aspect as the creator, he is called Brahmā. When referred to in his capacity as preserver of the world, he is called Vishnu. When referred to in his capactity as destroyer of the world, he is called Shiva.
Many of these individual aspects of God also have other names and images. For example, Krishna and Rama are considered forms of Vishnu. All the various deities and images one finds in Hinduism are considered manifestations of the same God, called Īśvara in the personal aspect and Brahman when referred to as an abstract concept.
In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their "ishta devatā," or chosen ideal. The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference. Regional and family traditions can play a large part in influencing this choice. Hindus may also take guidance about this choice from their scriptures.
Although Hindus may worship deities other than their chosen ideal from time to time as well, depending on the occasion and their personal inclinations, it is not expected that they will worship--or even know about--every form of God. Hindus generally choose one concept of God (e.g., Krishna, Rama, Shiva, or Kali) and cultivate devotion to that chosen form, while at the same time respecting the chosen ideals of other people.
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Deities
Krishna revealing his universal form to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita Artwork © courtesy of The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
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Krishna revealing his universal form to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita Artwork © courtesy of The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
The Hindu religion speaks of many individual deities, called Devas. Goddesses are called devīs. It is the worship of the devas and devis that gives the impression that Hinduism is polytheistic and worships many Gods. However, strictly speaking, the deities are not so many different gods; they are personifications of various aspects of one and the same God (Ishvara).[45] For instance, when a Hindu thinks of Ishvara as the giver of knowledge and learning, that aspect of Ishvara is personified as the deity Saraswati. In the same manner, the deity Lakshmi personifies Ishvara as the giver of wealth and prosperity.[46] This does not imply that Ishwara is the Lord of all the other deities; Ishwara is just the name used to refer to the personal God in general, when no particular deity is being refered to.
The devas (also called devatās) constitute an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. These various forms of God are depicted in innumerable paintings, statues, murals, and scriptural stories that can be found in temples, homes, businesses, and other places. In Hinduism the scriptures recommend that for the satisfaction of a particular material desire a person may worship a particular deity.[47] For example, shopkeepers frequently keep a statue or picture of the devi Lakshmi in their shops. The elephant-headed deva known as Ganesha is worshipped before commencing any undertaking, as he represents God in God's aspect as the remover of obstacles. Students and scholars may propitiate Saraswati, the devi of learning, before taking an exam or giving a lecture.
The most ancient Vedic devas included Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuṇa, Mitra, Savitṛ, Rudra, Prajāpati, Viṣhṇu, Aryaman and the Ashvins; important devīs were Sarasvatī, Ūṣā and Pṛithvī. Indra is traditionally called the king of the devas.
Later scriptures called the Purāṇas laud Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Shiva (sometimes called the Trimūrti), signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Brahmā, Viṣnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahādevas on account of their central positions in many aspects of worship and mythology. The Purāṇas also laud other devas, such as Gaṇesha and Hanumān, and avatāras such as Rāma and Kriṣhṇa (see below). Goddesses, called Devīs, are worshiped when God is thought of as the universal Mother. Particular forms of the Divine Mother (devī) include Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī and Parvatī, and Durgā who can also appear in forms such as Kālī.
There are some Hindus who consider the various deities not as forms of the one Ishwara, but as independently existing entities, and may thus be properly considered polytheistic to some extent. For example,
1. Some Hindus of the Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, and Vaishnava schools, and certain schools of Shaiva thought, describe the devas as celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord Īshvara but are superior to human beings. Thus they preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world.
2. According to the philosophy of Mīmāṃsā, all the devas and devīs are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature, and there is no one Supreme Īshvara as their Lord. To do a desired action, humans must please each or several of these devas by worshiping them with proper rituals. This view could be regarded as purely polytheistic. Although the later Mīmāṃsakās retracted this view and accepted Īshvara, some Hindus today still hold it.
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Avatāras (incarnations of God)
Rama (center), an avatara, shown with wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman. Rama is shown having blue skin which is a characteristic of Vishnu
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Rama (center), an avatara, shown with wife Sita, brother Lakshmana and devotee Hanuman. Rama is shown having blue skin which is a characteristic of Vishnu
Hinduism teaches that, from time to time, God comes to Earth as a human being to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment and salvation (moksha). Such an incarnation of God is called an avatāra. In some respects, the Hindu concept of avatara is similar to the belief found in Christianity that God came to the earth in the form of Jesus. However, whereas most Christians believe that God has assumed a human body on only one occasion, Hinduism teaches that there have been multiple avatars throughout history--and that there will be more in the future. Thus Krishna, an incarnation of God, says:
Whenever rightousness declines
And unrightousness increases,
I make myself a body;
In every age I come back
To deliver the holy,
To destroy the sin of the sinner,
To establish rightousness.[48]
The most famous of the divine incarnations are Rama, whose life is depicted in the Ramayana, and Krishna, whose life is depicted in the Mahabharata and the Shrīmad Bhāgavatam). The Bhagavad Gita, which contains the spiritual teachings of Krishna, is one of the most widely-read scriptures in Hinduism.
Although some scriptures mention only ten Divine incarnations, the Shrīmad Bhāgavatam mentions the possibility that they are innumerable.
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Heaven and Hell
Heaven and hell may exist, but heaven is not considered the ultimate goal. This is because heaven and hell are temporary--the only thing that is eternal is divinity, which includes God as well as the human soul (the ātman). Therefore the ultimate goal is to experience divinity.
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Practices
Nearly all Hindu practices seek to accomplish a single purpose: increasing a person's awareness of the divinity that is present everywhere and in everything. Therefore, the Hindu tradition has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity even in the midst of everyday life. The more a devotee can think holy thoughts, the sooner he or she can purify his or her mind, which is the way to salvation.
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Pūjā (worship)
Most observant Hindus engage in some type of formal worship both in the home and in temples. In the home, Hindus usually have a special room, or part of a room, that is used as a shrine, and which contains a picture or statue symbolizing the individual's chosen form of God (ishta). The devotee enters the shrine at dawn and at dusk to make an offering to God, symbolized by placing items such as food, water, and flowers before the image, waving incense and a lighted candle, ringing a bell, and/or waving a fan. The devotee thus symbolically offers to God items that can be enjoyed by each of the five senses. Other practices in the home include meditation (dhyāna), the chanting of God's name or names (japa), and the recitation of scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita.
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus. [49] Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals. As a result, temples do not have as much hold on Hindus as Christian churches or Jewish synagogues have over their members.[50] Temples are not used for weddings, funerals, or as social hubs; they are primarily used for formal worship. Often there will also be devotional singing (kīrtana) and religious discourses. Hindu temple priests (pandās) are salaried workers, hired by temple authorities to perform ritualistic worship. They are not to be confused with swāmīs or sanyāsins (all-renouncing monks, who do not work for money.[51]
Priests begin to perform temple worship at daybreak each day, and continue to do perform various rituals until late in the evening. During the worship the priest makes various offerings to God, such as food, drink, flowers, and perfume. As the human mind can think only in human terms, God is worshipped in the form of a person, or sometimes an animal-like being (such as Hanumān, and sometimes as a symbol (e.g. shiva-linga). The priest is fully aware that God does not need any of the things that he is offering, but he offers them to God as a token of love and devotion. Often, devotees visiting the temple bring their own food to the temple, or purchase it from vendors outside. The priest takes the food from the devotees and offers it to God on their behalf. After the offering, the food is considered to be sanctified (prasāda), and is freely distributed by the priest--depending on the particular temple--to the devotees, wandering monks or nuns, and the poor. Eating prasāda is considered spiritually beneficial.[52]
Besides home and temple worship, observant Hindus try to perform every action as an offering to God. They try to do their duties in the world, but without seeking any personal benefit, thinking instead that they are doing the work as an offering to God. This type of worship is called karma yoga, and is considered higher than ordinary formal worship. Thus, in the Bhagavad Gita God (as Sri Krishna) states,
"Perform every action with your heart fixed on the Supreme Lord. Renounce attachment to the fruits. Be even-tempered in success and failure; for it is this evenness of temper which is meant by yoga. . . In the calm of self-surrender, the seers renounce the fruits of their actions, and so reach enlightenment"[53]
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Worship of God through Images
Hindus worship God through images (murti), such as statues or paintings, which are symbols of God's power and glory. Through such tangible symbols a Hindu tries to establish contact with the intangible God. Just as a photograph of a person's father is not his real father, so also an image symbolizing some powers or glories of God is never considered to be God Himself. It only helps the devotee to remember God. The image, which is a symbol, acts like a link between God and His worshiper. When through such adoration and worship the worshiper establishes mental communion with God, worship ends. Then there is no more need for images. That is why Hindus often discard the images after worship and immerse them in either lakes or rivers.[54]
Main article: Murti
Ganesha is the son of Shiva and Parvati (pictured left). He is widely worshipped as Vignesh, the remover of obstacles.
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Ganesha is the son of Shiva and Parvati (pictured left). He is widely worshipped as Vignesh, the remover of obstacles.
According to another view, it is not incorrect to think that God is in the image because God is everywhere. Thus the Padma Purana,[55] states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as the manifest form of the Divinity.
The deity Shiva is almost always worshipped symbolically in the form of a pillar-like stone called Lingam. The origins of this practice are not entirely clear. Some interpret the term lingam as a phallus due to its shape and certain Puranic stories. However, the Sanskrit word Lingam can also mean any sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret the shiva lingam as a mystic column (stambha) trying to represent the infiniteness of Shiva.
The dancing posture of Siva, known as the Nataraja, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art
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The dancing posture of Siva, known as the Nataraja, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art
A few Hindu denominations, such as the Ārya Samāj, do not believe in worshipping God through images.
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The Guru-Disciple Tradition
In many Hindu denominations, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to have a personal spiritual teacher, called a guru. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to sincerely strive to reach the goal of spiritual life. [56] A guru teaches to each student a special mantra, which is a name of God, a holy phrase, or other sacred words, which the student repeats (japa) to himself or herself daily at dawn and dusk, and as much as possible at other times. The mantra is meant to increase remembrance of God and to elevate the mind so that it will become purer and able to experience God. The guru may also give the student instructions in meditation and other practices.
Only a person with an exemplary life and high spiritual attainments can be a guru. A true guru must never charge any money for the guidance that he or she gives to the student, although a student may give voluntary gifts to the teacher as a token of appreciation (guru-dakshinā). A teacher who violates the sacred time-honored prohibition against charging money is said to bring disgrace on himself and his religion.[57]
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Mantra
Main article: Mantra
One Hindu practice is repetition of a sacred formula, called a mantra. Many mantras are from the Vedas. The holy syllable Om is the first mantra in the Vedas and the Upanishads. The chanting of a mantra is called japa. The devotee may chant aloud or silently, and will often repreat the mantra a specified number of times, counting the number of repititions on a rosary (japa-mālā) or on the fingers.
Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help the sadhaka (practitioner) focus the mind on holy thoughts. Mantras can also be used to express love and devotion for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength.[58] Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words are said to have been a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: "Hé Ram!"'.
One of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda 3.62.10. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken from the ancient times, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges) while chanting Gayatri and Mahamrityunjaya mantra.[citation needed] Since the mantras chanted in Hinduism come from the Vedic literature, they are generally in the Sanskrit language.
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Pilgrimage
Varanasi is the oldest living city in the world and is considered as one of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for Hindus irrespective of denomination.
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Varanasi is the oldest living city in the world and is considered as one of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for Hindus irrespective of denomination.[59]
Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism as it is in Islam. Nevertheless, most Hindus who can afford to do so undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places (tīrtha-sthāna) in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of Varanasi, otherwise known as Benaras or Kashi. Other holy places include Kedarnath in the Himalayas, the Jagannāth temple at Pūrī, Rishikesh and Haridwar in the foothills of the Himalayas, Allahabad (also known by the ancient name Prayāg, located at the confluence of multiple holy rivers), and Rameshwaram in the South. The largest gathering of pilgrims occurs during the Kumbha Melā festival, which occurs in different cities on a rotating basis. Hindus who can afford to do so make a pilgrimage to the town of Gayā once in their life to offer sacrifices and pray for the well-being of their ancestors.
Most of the holy places are considered holy because they are associated with some event in history or mythology, or with the life of a saint or other holy person. For instance, the town of Mathura is holy because it was the birthplace of Krishna.
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The four pursuits of life
Hinduism recognizes four legitimate pursuits in life, known as puruṣhārthas. The four puruṣhārthas are:
1. kāma (satisfying the desire for sense pleasure)
2. artha (acquisition of worldly possessions or money)
3. dharma (observance of religious duties)
4. mokṣha (liberation achieved through God-realization)[60]
Among these, kama is considered the lowest because this urge is common to both man and animals, and because it is rooted in selfishness. Artha is higher because it is mainly observed in humans, and can be performed for unselfish reasons. Dharma is higher than kama and artha because it is inherently based on unselfishness, and moksha is the highest because God-realization is the ultimate goal of life, whose attainment results in lasting happiness and perfect unselfishness. Moksha (salvation) is also known as Mukti, Samādhi (union with God), Nirvāṇa, or escape from Samsāra (the cycle of births and deaths).[61] However, even kama and artha are considered legitimate pursuits, so long as they are performed responsibly, as intermediate stages on the path to the realization of God. Thus it is said that artha and kama are to be pursued like a river which is bounded by dharma and moksha on the two sides.
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Denominations
Main article: Hindu denominations
The temple of Pashupatinath in Nepal is regarded as one of the most sacred places in Shaivism.
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The temple of Pashupatinath in Nepal is regarded as one of the most sacred places in Shaivism.
Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all. However, scholars frequently categorize contemporary Hinduism into three or four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and sometimes Smartism. These denominations differ primarily in the particular forms of God worshipped, and in associated rituals and traditions. Each of the major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with each other, but each sect has a different approach for achieving life's ultimate goal (Mokṣha, salvation). Vaishnavism worships God in the form of Viṣhṇu, Shaivism, worships God as Shiva, and Shaktism worships a female divinity or goddess, Devī. In Tantra and other traditions influenced by it, the Goddess is considered the power of Shiva, and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shākta denominations. Smartism believes that all religions lead to a pantheistic God, but does not focus on any particular form of God.
There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj, which condemns iconolatry and veneration of multiple deities, focusing instead on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña). Traditions such as the Ramakrishna movement incorporate elements from all the major denominations and stress that God-realization can be achieved through any denomination so long as it is followed sincerely.
Although, as in every religion, there are some persons who view their own denomination as superior to others, Hindus more commonly consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. The concept of heresy found in some other religions is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.
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History
Main article: History of Hinduism
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Origins
Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual center of the world.
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Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual center of the world.
The roots of Hinduism date from around 3000–1000 BCE. The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith is sometimes claimed to date back as far as 3000 BCE[62] , though the beliefs and practices of pre-classical era (1500-500 BCE) are more accurately termed, "Vedic religion." Fully-formed Hinduism did not emerge until these Vedic traditions interacted with the shramanical movements of Buddhism and Jainism.[63] The synthesis of Vedic ritual and pantheon with the non-violent and gnostic traditions of the shramanas yielded the complex we know today as "Hinduism."
From the perspective of a believing Hindu, however, the Sanātana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. According to the Purāṇas, Kṛṣṇa spoke the Bhagavad-Gita on the battlefield of Kurukshetra in 3102 B.C.; just prior to the commencement of the Mahabharata war.[64] Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Rāma’s in the Tretā Yuga according to the Rāmāyaṇa Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Rāma, the seventh incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu. The Aryan invasion theory dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-500 BCE, based on linguistic and literary data from the Rigveda, believed to be composed from around the mid 2nd millennium BCE, while recent archaeological evidence points to the possibility that Vedic culture was possibly created more than a millennia earlier, leading to the Out of India theory. [65][66]
The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called Ṛṣis, over a long period of time. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Ārya Dharma, approximately translating to "noble religion". Many times Hindus (e.g. Arya Samaj) call Hinduism itself as the Arya Dharma. More specifically Hinduism is the "Sanatan Arya Dharma."
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Vedic religion
Main article: historical Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centers on worship of celestial spirits such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform fire-sacrifices, called yajña (यज्ञ), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several centuries, if not several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta (of Zoroastrianism), as well as to other Indo-European languages and religions. The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter)—the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Ziu in Germanic mythology[9]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
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Society
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Temples
Main article: Mandir
Most Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east except for Hanuman Temples which face South. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here is the Tirupati temple, the most visited religious shrine in the world and the second richest religious shrine after the Vatican.
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Most Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east except for Hanuman Temples which face South. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here is the Tirupati temple, the most visited religious shrine in the world and the second richest religious shrine after the Vatican.[67]
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the āgama shāstras and many are sites of pilgrimage. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is Vaastu Shastra, the science of aesthetic and auspicious design.
For many Hindus, the four Shankarāchāryas (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) are viewed as the four highest Patriarchs of the Hindudom. Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the Divine), pūjā, meditation, and religious congregation — among other religious activities. Pūjā or worship, frequently involves veneration of a mūrti (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kīrtan (devotional songs), and āratī are sometimes sung in conjunction with the performance of the pūjā. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God.
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Current geographic distribution
Main article: Hinduism by country
The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) (India).
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The largest religious gathering on Earth. [68] Around 70 million people from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) (India).
Of the total Hindu population of the world, approx. 900 million of them live in India. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in Bali, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Fiji, Guyana, Nepal, Mauritius, Suriname, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Trinidad and Tobago. In Nepal and Bali, Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in Sri Lanka (1.42 million)[69], Pakistan (2 million)[70], Malaysia (1.5 million)[71], United States (766,000)[72], South Africa (654,714)[73], the Middle East (1.4 million)[74] and the United Kingdom (558,342)[75].
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Ashramas (stages of life)
Traditionally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the life of a Hindu was divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are
* Brahmacharya (the stage of a student)
* Gṛihastha (the stage of a householder)
* Vānaprastha (retirement--literally "living out in the forest") and
* Sanyāsa (life as a monk).
The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation, or study of the Brahman") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastha is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life (see section on ashramas. Vānaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).
Note: the word āshrama (or āshram) is also used to refer to a building which is devoted to religious activities. Usually monks or other spiritual aspirants reside in an ashram, and spiritual seekers may visit the ashram to study the scriptures, meditate, or worship. This type of āshram may contain a monastery or convent (math), a temple, library, and / or other facilities for spiritual practice and religious education.
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Varnas & the Caste System
Hindu society was traditionally divided into four classes, called varnas within what is commonly called the caste system. What varna a person was in was based on occupation —
* the Brāhmaṇas (also anglicised as Brahmins): teachers and priests;
* the Kṣhatriyas: warriors, kings and administrators;
* the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and
* the Shūdras: servants and labourers.
Each of these classes was called a varṇa, and the system was called Varna Vyavasthā.
During its early development, Indian social structure was based upon one's profession. Originally every caste was given equal importance. Each was considered essential for society. Later, as time passed, vested interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes of the individual, was made hereditary by self-interested people in positions of power and authority. They wanted to perpetuate their caste-based privileges. As a result, the caste system degenerated. Some castes were artificially made superior or "higher" and others inferior or "lower."[76] The caste system is likened to the class system, based on wealth, that is found in Europe.
Though historians do not agree on the specific period, the social system became hierarchical and based upon birth, leading to the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of outcastes — now known as Dalits — outside the Varṇa Vyavasthā) and the practice of social discrimination of the Shūdra and Dalit classes, eventually forming the caste system as we know it today.
Today it is often debated whether the Varna Vyavasthā system is an integral part of the Hindu religion sanctioned by the scriptures or or is simply an outdated social custom.[77] The caste system is observed today especially among rural and uneducated Hindus; it is not observed as much in large cities, and the government of India has passed several laws attempting to remedy the problem of caste discrimination[78]
The most ancient scriptures--the Shruti texts, or vedas--place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only rarely and in a cursory manner. Later scriptures, however, such as the Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) explicitly state that the four varṇa divisions are created by God. Other texts (including the Manusmṛiti) explicitly categorize the differnt castes[79]
However, the Gītā (4.13) explicitly says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of great sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a great sage. Veda Vyāsa, another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman [80]. A hymn from the Rig Veda says :
"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......"
(Rig Veda 9.112.3).
Thus, while the scriptures contain some passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system as it exists today is not sanctioned, and both sides in the debate are able to find scriptural support for their views.
Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), have been very critical of the problems caused by the degenerated caste system. The saint and religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) taught that
"lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated." [81]
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Ahimsa, vegetarianism, and the cow
Main articles: Ahimsa, Sacred cow, and Vegetarianism
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas, or eternal vows/restraints in Raja Yoga. In part at least, it has also been influenced from the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism.
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, states like Gujarat, which has had significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian.[82] Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic/tamasic. Another 20% of the Hindu population practice vegetarianism on certain days, especially on the day of their deity of devotion.
Those Hindus who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from beef. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term gau mata, or Cow Mother). While most contemporary Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many venerate her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. There exists a legal ban against cow-slaughter in almost all states of the Indian Union[citation needed], however over 30,000 illegal slaughterhouses run in India. [citation needed] In Kerala and Bengal, consumption of beef by Hindus is much more widespread, due to the Communist influence in these areas. [citation needed]
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Schools of Hindu Philosophy
Main article: Hindu philosophy
The six Āstika or orthodox schools (those which accept the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga,
In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be a way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE.
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In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be a way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE.
Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (also simply called Mīmāṃsā), and Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta).[83] The six schools are known as "Shat Astik (Hindu) Darshana."
The Heterodox Nāstika schools--those which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas--are Buddhism, Jainism and Lokāyata.
Although these philosophies are usually studied formally only by scholars, their influences can be found in many religious books and beliefs held by average Hindus.
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Themes and symbols
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Tilaka
Main article: Tilaka
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. Hindus traditionally wear tilaka, in one form or another, as a mark of faith in a particular tradition.[84] Hindus may wear tilaka always or especially on religious occasions.
The shape of the tilaka often represents devotion to a certain deity. For example, a 'U' shape thilaka usually represents Vishnu and is commonly seen among Hare Krishna followers.
To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married women today commonly wear on the forehead a decorative dot, or bindī. In Southern India, this is called pottu (or bottu). Normally a red bindi or pottu is worn by married woman. Among North Indian married woman, the red bindi is worn at the central upper portion of the forehead where the hair starts. Among South Indian married woman, the red pottu is worn at the centre between both the eyebrows.
It is common among South Indian unmarried woman or young girls to wear a black pottu to denote their status.
Vibhuti
It is the holy ash obtained from sacred pooja rites involving fire. It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. It is commonly seen in South Indians, especially Tamils who revere wearing the vibhuti as sym
